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Sunday, October 6, 2013
MASTER¡¯S PROGRAMME
A Master.s Programme consists of a number of courses. Master.s
Programme consists of a set of compulsory courses (Core Courses) and
some optional courses (elective courses).
Core courses are basic
courses required for each programme. The number and distribution of
credits for core courses will be decided by the respective faculties.
Elective courses will be suggested by the respective departments. Elective courses may be distributed in all four semesters.
A course is divided into SIX units to enable the students to achieve modular and progressive learning.
SEMESTERS
An academic year is divided into two semesters, odd semester and even semester. The normal semester periods are:
Odd Semester: July to November (90 Working days)
Even Semester: December to April (90 Working days)
CREDITS
The term credit is used to describe the quantum of syllabus for various
programmes in terms of weightage and hours of study. It indicates
differential weightage given according to the contents and duration of
the courses in the curriculum design.
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The minimum credit requirement for a two year Master‟s Programme shall be 90.
COURSES
Each course may consist of lectures/ tutorials/ laboratory work/
semester/ project work/ practical training/ report/ viva voce etc.
COURSE WEIGHT
Core and Elective courses may carry different weights. For example, a
course carrying one credit for lectures will have instruction of one
period per week during the semester, if three hours of lecture is
necessary in each week for that course, the 2 credits will be the
weightage.
Thus normally, in each of the courses, credits will be
assigned on the basis of the lectures / tutorials / laboratory work /
tour and industrial visits and other forms of learning in a 15 week
schedule.
One credit for each lecture period per week
One credit for each tutorial per week
One credit for every three periods of laboratory or practical work per week
One credit for 3 contact hours of project work in a week
One credit for every two period seminar
Two credits for project work / dissertation.
Two credits for tour and industrial visits
ELIGIBILITY FOR ADMISSION
A candidate who has passed the Bachelor‟s Degree in any subject
including the Professional Courses of this University or an examination
of any other University accepted by the Syndicate as equivalent thereto.
GRADING SYSTEM
The term Grading system indicates a 10 point scale of evaluation of the
performance of students in terms of marks, grade points, letter grade
and class.
DURATION
The duration for completion of a two year Master‟s Programme in any subject is of four semesters.
STRUCTURE OF THE PROGRAMME
The Master‟s Programme will consist of:
Core courses which are compulsory for all the students
Elective courses which students can choose amongst from courses
approved within the department or in other departments of the faculty
and other faculties.
The CBCS elective subjects will be allotted
after counseling by a committee of the Head of the Departments under the
chairmanship of the Dean.
Dissertation / Project Work / Practical
Training / Field work, which can be done in an organization (Government,
Industry, Firm, Public Enterprise etc.) approved by the concerned
department.
Student can take any two specializations (Dual
Specialization) and should continue with the same from 2nd Semester to
4th Semester.
ATTENDANCE
Every teaching faculty handling a
course shall be responsible for the maintenance of attendance register
for candidates who have registered for the course.
The instructor of
the course must intimate the Head of the Department at least Seven
Calendar days before the last instruction day in the semester about the
particulars of all students who have secured an attendance of less than
80%.
A candidate who has attendance less than 80% shall not be
permitted to sit for the End–Semester examination in the course in which
the short fall exists.
However, it shall be open to the authorities
to grant exemption to a candidate who has failed to obtain the
prescribed 80% attendance for valid reasons on payment of a Condone fee
and such exemptions should not under any circumstances be granted for
attendance below 70%.
Attendance %-Marks
90 and more-5
80–89-4
70–79-3
EXAMINATION
There will be two sessional assessments and one End–Semester examination during each semester.
Sessional Test–I will be held during sixth week for the syllabi covered till then.
Sessional Test–I will be combination of a variety of tools such as
class test, assignment, and paper presentation that would be suitable to
the course. This requires an element of openness. The students are to
be informed in advance about the nature of assessment and the
procedures. However the tests are compulsory. Test I may be for one hour
duration. The pattern of question paper will be decided by the
respective Faculty. Sessional Test–I will carry 20% of marks out of the
session marks 25.
Sessional Test–II will be held during eleventh week for the syllabi covered between seventh and eleventh weeks.
Sessional Test–II will be conducted with a variety of assessment tools.
It will also have an element of openness. The students are to be
informed in advance about the nature of assessment and the procedures.
However the tests are compulsory. Test II may be for two hour duration.
The pattern of question paper will be decided by the respective faculty.
Sessional Test II carries 20% of marks out of the session marks 25.
There will be one end semester examination of 3 hours duration in each course.
The End Semester Examination will cover all the syllabus of the course for 75% of marks.
EVALUATION
Evaluation will be done on a continuous basis. Evaluation may be by
objective type questions, Quiz, Short Answers, Essays or a combination
of these, but at the End Semester Examination, it has to be a written
examination.
The performance of a student in each course is
evaluated in terms of Percentage of marks (PM) with a provision for
conversion to Grade Point (GP). The sum total performance in each
semester will be rated by GPA while the continuous performance from the
2nd Semester onwards will be marked by (OGPA).
MARKS AND GRADING
A Student cannot repeat the assessment of Sessional Test I and
Sessional Test II. However, if for any compulsive reason, the students
could not attend the test, the prerogative of arranging a special test
lies with the teacher in consultation with the Head of the Departments.
A minimum of 50% marks in each course is prescribed for a pass. A
student has to secure 50% minimum in the End Semester Examination.
If a candidate who has not secured a minimum of 50% of marks in a course shall be deemed to have failed in that course.
The Student can repeat the End Semester Examination when it is offered
next in the subsequent odd / even semester till the regulations are in
force.
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A candidate who has secured a minimum of 50 marks in
all the courses prescribed in the programme and earned a minimum of 90
credits will be considered to have passed the Master‟s Programme.
GRADING
A ten point rating scale is used for the evaluation of the performance
of the student to provide letter grade for each course and overall grade
for the Master‟s Programme.
Marks - Grade Point - Letter Grade - Class
90 and more- 10- S - Exemplary
85–89 - 9.0- D - Distinction
80–84 - 8.5 - D - Distinction
75–79 - 8.0 - D - Distinction
70–74 - 7.5 - A - First Class
65–69 - 7.0 - A - First Class
60–64 - 6.5 - A - First Class
55–59 - 6.0 - B - Second Class
50–54 - 5.5 - C - Second Class
49 or Less- – - F- Fail
II Class–50–59% Marks in overall percentage of marks.
Candidates who obtain 75% and above but below 90% of marks (OPM) shall
be deemed to have passed the examination in FIRST CLASS provided he/she
passes all the courses prescribed for the programme at the first
appearance.
Candidates who obtain 90% and above (OPM) shall be
deemed to have passed the examination in FIRST CLASS (Exemplary)
provided he/she passes all the courses prescribed for the programme at
first appearance.
For the Internal Assessment Evaluation, the break up marks shall be as follows:
Test ––– 10 Marks
Assignment/ Seminar/ Case Study/
Role Play/ Viva Voce / Short Answers ––– 10 Marks
Attendance ––– 5 Marks
Total ––– 25 Marks
The award of marks shall be as below:
Faculty of Science Theory & Practical 2000 Marks
Faculty of Arts, Indian Language and Education 3700 Marks
COURSE–WISE LETTER GRADES
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The percentage of marks obtained by a candidate in a course will be indicated in a letter grade.
A student is considered to have completed a course successfully and
earned the credits if he/she secure an overall letter grade other than
F. A letter grade F in any course implies a failure in that course. A
course successfully completed cannot be repeated for the purpose of
improving the Grade Point.
The F grade once awarded stays in the
grade of the student and is not deleted even when he/she completes the
course successfully later. The Grade acquired later by the student will
be indicated in the grade sheet of the odd/even semester in which the
candidate has appeared for clearance of the arrears.
A student who
secures F grade in any course which is listed as a core course has to
repeat it compulsorily when the course is offered next. If it is an
elective course, the student has the option to repeat it when it is
offered next or to choose a new elective if he/she so desires in order
to get a successful grade.
When new elective is chosen in the place
of failed elective, the failed elective will be indicated as dropped in
the subsequent grade card.
If a student secures F grade in the
Project Work / Field Work / Practical Work / Dissertation, either he/she
shall improve it and resubmit it if it involves only rewriting
incorporating the clarifications of the evaluators or he/she can
re–register and carry out the same in the subsequent semesters for
evaluation.
GENERAL
In–plant training is being offered for
elective students in organizations. The students get the opportunity to
interact with the officials in the company environment in their chosen
field.
Major project in a company for 45 days by students is
compulsory. The project develops research bent of mind among them. The
students can select any topic in functional areas. The faculty acts as
internal guide. Computer Laboratory consists more than 100 computers.
Each student is served with one PC to enable research and academic
activities.
Department Library is equipped with 5000 volumes and a
number of journals and back volumes. Laboratory and Computer wing
function from 10.00 AM to 8.00 PM.
Placements in Leading Organizations
Project Placements in Companies
Computer Training
Use of Internet and Computers
Use of Electronic Gadgets in Classrooms
Case Study Workshops and Consultancy Training
Arranging Man–meet Programmes
Short and Long Industrial Tours
Specialization Training in Industries
Nominating students in Inter College and University Management Development Programmes
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Entrepreneurial Training Programmes
Executive Sports arranged annually
Guest Lectures from Industries
Back Volumes–Journals and Magazines
ACTIVITIES AS A PART OF MBA PROGRAMME
Leaders Lecture Programme Series
Guest Lectures
Management Development Programmes
Industrial Visits
Personality Development Programmes
Seminar
Conference
Workshops
Symposium
Campus Placement
Student Newsletters
Management Meets
Entrepreneur Development Programmes
Communication Development Programmes
Organising and Participating when held in other Institutions.
--Sample Time Table for 2013--
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DISTANCE EDUCATION
APPENDIX - II: TIME TABLE
Master of Business Administration -Information Systems - (Course Code : 269)
DEGREE EXAMINATIONS - MAY 2013
(Examination will be held from 9.30 A.M. to 12.30 P.M.)
SUBJECT CODE SUBJECT NAME DAY &DATE OF EXAMINATION
IYEAR
110 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENTSunday 19th May 2013
120 MANAGERIALECONOMICS Monday 20th May 2013
130 ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE FOR MANAGERS Tuesday 21st May 2013
140 MARKETINGMANAGEMENT Wednesday 22ndMay 2013
150 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENTThursday 23rd May 2013
160 PRODUCTION ANDMATERIALS MANAGEMENTFriday 24th May 2013
170 RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT Saturday 25th May 2013
180 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS LAB ------
IIYEAR (Examination will be held from 2.00 P.M. to 5.00 P.M.)
210 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Sunday 19th May 2013
220 MANAGEMENTINFORMATION SYSTEM Monday 20th May 2013
230 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Tuesday 21st May 2013
240 ELECTRONIC COMMERCE Wednesday 22nd May 2013
250 ENTERPRISE RESOURCE PLANNING Thursday 23rd May 2013
260 DATA WAREHOUSINGAND DATA MINING Friday 24th May 2013
270 SOFTWARE PROJECTMANAGEMENT Saturday 25th May 2013
280 ADVANCED WEBDESIGN Sunday 26th May 2013
290 PROJECT & VIVA- VOCE Date willbe intimatedlater
UNIT 6 JOB ANALYSIS
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to understand:
l the concept of job analysis and its significance to the organisations,
l the different methods of collecting information for job analysis, and
l job-anlaysis and its relationship vis-a-vis job description and job specification.
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Job Analysis
6.3 Some Considerations
6.4 Method of Collecting Information
6.5 Job Analysis: Process
6.6 Steps in the Job Analysis Process
6.7 Job Description
6.8 Design of Job Description
6.9 Uses of Job Description
6.10 Job Specification
6.11 Summary
6.12 Self-Assessment Questions
6.13 Further Readings
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Organisation is described as a rational coordination of the activities of employees
through division of labour, responsibility, authority and accountability. Built in this
description is the realisation that organisations perform a series of activities and that
to perform these activities different kinds of skills are required. Each activity carries
its own set of responsibilities and the employees are given appropriate authority to
perform these activities. Not only this, they are also accountable to the organisation
through their immediate supervisors for accomplishing these activities according to
specifications. Hence, a clear understanding of what they are supposed to do becomes
a pre- requisite for effective utilisation of organisational resources. Job analysis helps
us to achieve this objective.
6.2 JOB ANALYSIS
There exists a wide range of job evaluation methods. The choice of an evaluation
method is dependent on the number and kind of jobs to be evaluated, the cost of the
operation, available resources, the degree of precision required and the organisations’
environments- both internal and external. However, whatever be the chosen method,
systematic gathering and analysis of information about jobs is a prerequisite. The job
analysis process involves gathering of such information.
6
Approaches to
Analysing Job
Job analysis is the process by which data, with regard to each job, is systematically
observed and noted. It provides information about the nature of the job and the
characteristics or qualifications that are desirable in the jobholder. The data from job
analysis could be used for a variety of purposes. The job analysis study attempts to
provide information in seven basic areas:
1. Job Identification or its title, including the code number, if any.
2. Distinctive or significant characteristics of the job, its location setting, supervision,
union jurisdiction, and hazards and discomforts, if any.
3. What the typical worker does: Specific operations and tasks that make up the
assignment, and their relative timing and importance; the simplicity, the routine,
or complexity of tasks, responsibility for others, for property, or for funds.
4. What materials and equipment the worker uses: Metals, plastics, grain, yarns;
and lathes, milling machines, electronic ignition testers, corn huskers, punch
presses, and micrometers are illustrative.
5. How the job is performed: The emphasis here is on the nature of operations, and
may specify such operations as handling, feeding, removing, drilling, driving,
setting up, and many others.
6. Required personnel attributes: Experience, training apprenticeship, physical
strength, coordination or dexterity, physical demands, mental capabilities,
aptitudes, and social skills are some attributes.
7. The conditions under which the work is performed: Working conditions and
work environments is a major contributing factor in the performance of the job,
and the satisfaction of the employee. A dimly highlighted, poorly ventilated and
crowded place of work hampers efficiency. The workers are forced to spend
more energy to accomplish tasks, which they can do, in much lesser efforts in
otherwise conditions. Poor working conditions have been found to cause greater
fatigue, negligence, absenteeism, indiscipline and insubordination among the
employees.
Each of these piece of information is essential; it is not sufficient to merely list a
series of tasks or duties, because each piece of information is used in determining the
level of work and responsibility and the knowledge, skill and abilities needed to
perform them to an acceptable level of proficiency.
The process of assembling and recording information on such essential
characteristics of jobs is known as job analysis. In other words, jobs are subjected to
analysis to find out precisely what the duties, responsibilities, working environment
and other requirements of a job are and to present these in a clear, concise and
systematic way. Job analysis should be undertaken by trained job analyst working in
close collaboration with managers and jobholders.
Before proceeding further, certain terms used in job analysis and related stages in the
job evaluation process need to be clarified.
Element: The smallest unit into which work can be divided.
Task: A distinct identifiable work activity, which comprises a logical, and
necessary step in the performance of a job.
Duty: A significant segment of the work performed in a job, usually
comprising several tasks.
Post (or): One or more duties, which require the services or activities of one
worker for their performance;
Job: A group of posts that are identical or involve substantially similar tasks.
Occupation: A group of jobs similar in terms of the knowledge, skills, abilities,
training and work experience required by workers for their successful
performance.
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Job Analysis 6.3 SOME CONSIDERATIONS
Job analysis might give the impression that while identifying components of job, we
are looking at everything that concerns the job. However, in analysing the job,
following considerations must be kept in mind:
1. Job analysis is not a one-time activity. Jobs are changing continuously. What
was a job yesterday is not the same job today and would not remain the same in
future. These changes are caused by changing technology, competition, changing
profile of the workforce, changing expectations of end users and a host of
other factors. Hence, analysis must be continuously done to update the nature of
job.
2. The Job and not the person—an important consideration in job analysis is
conducted of the job and not of the person. While job analysis data may be
collect from incumbents through interviews or questionnaires, the product of the
analysis is a description or specifications of the job, not a description of the
person doing the job.
3. All activities relating to job analysis give us only the minimum requirements of
the job. No analysis can identify either the ultimate or full and complete requirements.
What it does is simply highlights what are minimum activities that are
entailed in a job. The reason is simple. No one can foresee the final outcome
because of changes taking place in the nature of job.
6.4 METHOD OF COLLECTING INFORMATION
There are several ways in which information about a job can be collected. In order to
have a full understanding of the job contents, a number of sources should be
explored. By and large, the following sources are generally used.In all the following
three methods, verification of the information collected from the holder of the job is
necessary. Very often, while collecting information people tend to describe those
aspects of the job that they are not doing or would like to do. Hence, after the
information has been collected from the employee, an interview with immediate
supervisor must be conducted to verify the authenticity of the information.
1. Job Questionnaire
To make a start, a job questionnaire could be administered to all concerned
employees asking them about the job, its various components, time spent on each of
them, and so forth. The completed questionnaire could be given to the supervisors for
their comments. In some cases, job-reviewing committees are formed, consisting of
union representatives and specialists from the personnel, work-study, or industrial
engineering department.The questionnaire has the following advantages:
1. First of all, it is the most cost effective method, since it can elicit information
from a wide number of workers and their immediate superiors in a relatively
short period of time. The main task of the analyst becomes one of planning the
questionnaire well and checking the responses provided.
2. Secondly, workers take an active part in completing the questionnaire providing
intimate detailed knowledge of their jobs, which is not available elsewhere.
3. Thirdly, the questionnaire has to be structured in advance, and this facilitates the
processing of the results.
4. In some cases, once the responses to the questionnaire have been verified, they
can conveniently be used with little further processing to prepare a job
description.
8
Approaches to
Analysing Job
The questionnaire method however has the following disadvantages:
1. To start with, the people required to complete it must have a certain level of
education; and even then, questions may be interpreted in different ways so that
the answers may be beside the point.
2. Furthermore, not everyone is able to describe fully and exactly the task that
constitute their job. One may, for example, over-emphasise some features of it
and completely ignore others when they are important.
3. There is less risk of this with a detailed questionnaire that includes a checklist of
points, questionnaire suited to all jobs is not easily drawn up and may be unduly
long.
In practice, while a well-structured questionnaire can get essential information
quickly, it is virtually impossible to get complete comparable information solely by
questionnaire, and this method is generally used in combination with interviews and
direct observation.
2. Interview
In practice, an interview is almost always necessary in order to obtain precise,
complete and comparable information. The interview conducted by the analyst is an
effective way of checking on the information already available on job. The analyst
asks the jobholders questions on the duties and main tasks of their job, generally
working from a previously prepared list of questions as with a questionnaire. After
the interview, the analyst draws up a report, which is shown, to the jobholder and his
immediate superior for their approval. The analyst usually drafts the report in the
form of a job description, which effectively speeds up the preparatory work of job
evaluation.
Following are some of the disadvantages of this method:
1. Interviews are time consuming. At least an hour or two may be necessary for
each case, plus the time spent by the analyst in drawing up his report and by the
jobholder and his immediate superior in checking it. In a large enterprise a team
of analysts would be necessary.
2. The main difficulty of the interview lies in finding high quality analysts who
can win the jobholder’s confidence. As has been noted, “ too many imagine
interviewing to be relatively simple whereas nothing could be farther from the
truth.” Obtaining information from a jobholder about his job is difficult.
3. Many workers show a natural distrust of the analyst who comes to examine their
work, while others will give a lot of information, much of it useless. It is
accordingly essential to have a well trained and experienced team of analysts if
the interview is to be the only method used.
However interview has some advantages:
1. Interview does provide in- depth information, which cannot be achieved through
any other method.
2. It also helps in collecting data about tasks that are not part of the job and yet the
jobholder has to do it.
3. At the same time it can also help in finding ways and means to simplify some of
the operations involved in the job.
3. Observation
For jobs of a simple and repetitive nature, the observation technique could provide
adequate information on the job being performed. A clear picture may be obtained
regarding the working conditions, equipment used, and skills required. Although all
9
jobs could be usefully observed, this technique alone is not enough for more complex Job Analysis
jobs, especially those that have many components or interactions.
Some advantages of this method are:
1. It is most suitable for simple and repetitive jobs.
2. Direct observation by the analyst can clear up points left unclear by other
methods.
At the same time, some of the disadvantages of this method are:
1. The presence of analyst causes stress. The workers may dislike being observed.
2. The jobholders may purposely reduce the pace of activity to justify overtime.
3. Observation cannot be a suitable method where the job calls for considerable
personal judgment and intellectual ability.
4. It may not take into account all the tasks in a work cycle stretched over a week
or a month.
4. Independent observers
In addition to the employees themselves providing information about the jobs they
are doing, trained observers could also be used to supplement the employees’ data
and to discover inadequate performance in “ crucial tasks”, which would lead to job
failure.
In addition there are some not so often used method of job analysis. Some of them
are presented here:
1. Diary: One or more incumbents are asked to keep a diary of duties noting the
frequency of the tasks performed. These diaries then become the basis for doing
job analysis.
2. Critical incidents: Ask one or more incumbents to brainstorm (if there is only
one person you will have to participate in the brain storming) about critical
incidents that happen routinely and infrequently while working. Separate these
into two lists. Generate one list of incidents indicating good or excellent performance
and one, which indicates poor performance. This approach is excellent
for determining training and selection strategies. The results lend themself to
meeting discrimination complaints concerning selection choices where the
person chosen clearly possesses the skill and knowledge to perform the most
critical duties indicating success on the job. The analyst will have to extrapolate
a list of duties to be performed from the incidents.
3. Photo tape recording of job performance: This is a good approach because it
can be watched over and over again to perform analysis and because it can be
pulled out later to re-evaluate. Having such a tape is excellent source for
undertaking job analysis.
4. Review of records: Records of work such as maintenance requests is reviewed
and a list of requested repairs is made. In this situation it is important to take
representative samples so that seasonal variations in work requests do not
mislead. This is a good approach for such jobs as mechanic or electrician. The
kinds of repairs being performed and, thus, the duties being performed most
often can be itemized. However, this approach could also be used for computer
programming and computer trouble-shooting jobs in which incumbents have
records of work requests or work competed.
The data to be gathered by all these methods is dependent in large part on the purpose
the analysis is to be put to. Information about training needs requires information
about the transaction of the work so that the trainer can determine the critical skills
and knowledge that must be improved. Selection decisions require the same
information usually on a broader scale. A lot of information can be inferred from
well-written task statements.
10
Approaches to
Analysing Job
Some of the examples of the kind of data, which can be gathered for job analysis, are
given below.
l List of tasks
l List of decisions made
l Indication of results if decisions are not made properly
l Amount of supervision received
l Supervision exercised
l Kind of personnel supervised
l Diversity of functions performed by supervised staff
l Interactions with other staff (description of the staff interacted with)
l Physical conditions
l Physical requirements (For instance how heavy are the objects that are lifted.
How much stooping and bending is conducted and under what conditions)
l Software used
l Programming language used
l Computer platform used
l Interpersonal contacts with outsiders (customers)
l Interpersonal persuasive skills or sales skills
l Amounts of mental or psychical stress
l Necessity to work as a team member
l Needed contributions to a work group
l Authority or judgment exercised
l Customer service skills
Generally, it is preferable to use a combination of several methods to get information
about the job. One method could well supplement the other, where the objective is to
gain as much information as possible about the job, the crucial tasks, and the
essential qualifications required to perform them satisfactorily. An objective data
gatherer would avoid introducing his own ideas, and also avoid describing the
employees performing the job, rather than the “job” itself, for many of the
employee’s personal traits may have little or no relevance to the job.
6.5 JOB ANALYSIS: PROCESS
To be meaningful and useful for personnel related decision-making, job analysis must
be carried more at frequent intervals. Jobs in the past were considered to be static and
were designed on the basis that they would not change. While people working on
these jobs were different, the jobs remained unchanged. It is now realised, that for
higher efficiency and productivity, jobs must change according to the employees who
carry them out. Some of the major reasons leading such change are:
Technological Change: The pace of change in technology necessitates changes in the
nature of job as well as the skills required. Word processing has drastically changed
the nature of secretarial jobs. Computerization and automation likewise give rise to
new requirements of certain jobs while older requirements become redundant.
Union- Management Agreements: The agreements entered between management and
the union can bring about change in the nature of job, duties and responsibilities. For
example, under employees participation scheme, the workers are encouraged to
accept wider responsibilities.
11
People: Human beings are not robots; each employee brings with him his own Job Analysis
strengths and weaknesses, his own style of handling a job and his own aptitude.
There is a saying that the job is what the incumbent makes of it.
Thus, the job analysis process must take into account the changing nature of job on
account of the factors listed above. Often, role analysis techniques are used in dealing
with the dynamic nature of job requirements.
6.6 STEPS IN THE JOB ANALYSIS PROCESS
The major steps to be followed in carrying out job analysis in an on-going
organization are given below:
1. Organization Analysis: The first step is to get an overall view of various jobs in
the organisation with a view to examine the linkages between jobs and the
organisational objectives, interrelationships among the jobs, and the contribution
of various jobs towards achieving organisational efficiency and effectiveness.
The organisation chart and the work flow or process charts constitute an
important source of information for the purpose.
2. Uses of Job Analysis Information: Depending on organisational priorities and
constraints, it is desirable to develop clarity regarding the possible uses of the
information pertaining to job analysis. In the previous pages it has been already
indicated that such information could be utilised practically for all personnel
functions. Nevertheless, it is important to focus on a few priority activities in
which the job analysis information could be used.
3. Selection of Jobs for Analysis: Carrying out job- analysis is a time- consuming
and costly process. It is, therefore, desirable to select a representative sample of
jobs for purposes of analysis.
4. Collection of Data: Data will have to be collected on the characteristics of job,
the required behaviour and personal attributes needed to do the job effectively.
Several techniques for job analysis are available. Care needs to be taken to use
only such techniques, which are acceptable and reliable in the existing situation
within the organisation.
5. Preparation of Job Description: The information collected in the previous step
is used in preparing a job description for the job highlighting major tasks,
duties, and responsibilities for effective job performance.
6. Preparation of Job Specification: Likewise, the information gathered in step (4)
is also used to prepare the job specification for a job highlighting the personal
attributes required in terms of education, training, aptitude and experience to
fulfil the job description.
Job Analysis thus carried out provides basic inputs to the design of jobs so that it is
able to meet the requirements of both the organization (in terms of efficiency and
productivity) as well as the employees (in terms of job satisfaction and need
fulfilment). Developing appropriate job design is then the outcome of the job analysis
process.
The most important use of job analysis is to produce a basic job description of what
the job is to facilitate basic human resource problem solving. The second is to
provide employees and supervisors with a basic description of jobs describing duties
and characteristics in common with and different from other positions or jobs. When
pay is closely associated with levels of difficulty these descriptions will help foster a
feeling of organisational fairness related to pay issues. Other important uses of job
analysis are given below:
l Indicate training needs
l Put together work groups or teams
12
Approaches to
Analysing Job
l Provide information to conduct salary surveys
l Provide a basis for determining a selection plan
l Provide a basis for putting together recruitment
l Describe the physical needs of various positions to determine the validity of
discrimination complaints
l As part of an organisational analysis
l As part of strategic planning
l As a part of any human relations needs assessment
l As a basis for coordinating safety concerns
Job analysis is indeed an essential part of any modern human resource management
system. The kind of information gathered through job analysis varies considerably
depending upon the specific uses to be made of it. Accordingly, job analysis
programmes are usually tailor-made for the specific purpose.
Activity A
“Smaller organisations do not need job analysis for their jobs because most of their
employees conduct a myriad of activities, too far-reaching for a standard job
analysis”. Give your view point.
..............................
..............................
..............................
Activity B
Discuss the sources of errors in your own organisation or any organisation you are
familiar with, that can distort or render job analysis information inaccurate.
..............................
..............................
..............................
6.7 JOB DESCRIPTION
Data collected for job analysis provides the basis for preparing job description. It
refers to the job contents and the expectations that an organisation has from its
employees. Job descriptions usually outline the minimum requirements of jobs for
many reasons:
1. First, despite all the attempts, a perfect and fully inclusive job description is not
possible. In fact, as one moves up in the hierarchy of an organisation, a detailed
job description becomes very difficult.
2. Secondly, most organisations would prefer not to describe the job fully, if it is
possible, because employees would then stick to what has been described and
would not do anything beyond it.
3. Thirdly, if a job were fully described, supervision would automatically be taken
care of by the duties performed, making some of the duties of the supervisory
staff redundant.
4. Fourthly, technology is changing fast and hence the nature of job is also changing.
Unless an organisation continuously updates the job description, it would
be difficult to monitor the performance of the employees.
13
Job Analysis 6.8 DESIGN OF JOB DESCRIPTION
A primary output or result of job analysis is job description. Information obtained by
job analysis is shifted and recorded concisely, clearly and fully in the job description.
The job description must assemble all the important elements of a job, such as
essential tasks, responsibilities, qualifications required and the functional relation of
the job to other jobs.
There is no universally accepted standard format for job descriptions for the reason
that the form and structure of the job descriptions must depend on the kind of work
being analysed and the job evaluation plan being used. For example, if the job
evaluation form comprises factors such as physical and intellectual effort,
knowledge, skills, responsibilities and working conditions, it follows that job
description should be structured to reflect these factors so as to facilitate factor by
factor comparison and evaluation of the jobs. With non- analytical methods, job
description may be more flexible and simpler but most specify the title of the job and
its position in the organisation, summarises the tasks performed and list the skills and
abilities required.
It is helpful to follow the following guidelines when writing a job description:
1. Always be accurate about what is expressed.
2. Omit expressions which are attributes— such as uninteresting, distasteful, etc.
3. Personal pronouns should be avoided— if it is necessary to refer to the worker,
the word “ operator” may be used.
4. Do not describe only one phase of the job and give the impression that all
phases are covered.
5. Generalized or ambiguous expressions, such as ‘prepare’, ‘assist’, ‘handle’ etc.
should be omitted unless supported by data that will clarify them.
6. All statements should be clearly defined and simply set down- promiscuous use
of adjectives only reflects one’s own opinion.
7. Describe the job as is being done, by the majority of workers holding the
designation.
8. Write in simple language— explain unusual technical terms.
9. Description of a job, which is part of teamwork, should establish the team
relationship.
10. The length of description is immaterial; it is not expected even with printed
forms that all job descriptions should be of equal length but write concisely.
11. When the job analyst finds that the data he has to work with is insufficient, s/he
should stop until sufficient data is available.
12. Put the date of completion of each description and revise it as often as changes
in jobs and occupation require.
13. Job description should have the concurrence of the concerned supervisor.
14. Description should contain the initials of the persons who compile them.
6.9 USES OF JOB DESCRIPTION
Apart from being a basis for job evaluation, the job descriptions can be put to many
uses. They are as under:
1. Supervisor- Employee Communication: The information contained in the job
description outlines the work, which the incumbent is expected to perform.
14
Approaches to
Analysing Job
Hence, it is an extremely useful document for both the supervisor and the
subordinate for purposes of communication. Furthermore, it helps employees to
understand just what work their associates are expected to perform, thus,
facilitating integration of efforts at the work site by the employees themselves.
2. Recruitment, Selection, Promotion, Transfer: Information pertaining to the
knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the work to an acceptable
standard, can be used as a sound basis on which to base standards are
procedures for recruitment, selection, promotion and transfer.
3. Work Performance Appraisal: To be sound and objective, a performance
appraisal system must be rooted in the work performed by the employee; such
work is indicated by the duties in the job description. In such an approach, using
each duty as the basis for discussion, the employee and the supervisor agree on
work performance goals for the period to be covered by the subsequent
evaluation report; they also agree on the criteria to be used to determine the
extent to which the goals have been attained. The reports resulting from this
methodology minimize subjectivity by focusing attention on the job, as distinct
from the personality traits, habits or practices of the employee. As a consequence,
the results are more factual; valid and defensible than is the case in
other types of systems.
4. Manpower Planning, Training and Development: These three processes are
closely interrelated. The job description showing, in specific terms, the
knowledge, skill and ability requirements for effective performance of the
duties, is a sound and rational basis for each of these processes. Analysis of
various types of jobs at progressively more senior levels will indicate logical
sources of supply for more senior posts, as part of manpower planning. It will
also indicate the gap to be bridged in terms of knowledge, skill and ability, thus
providing a sound basis for preparing job- related training and development
programmes.
5. Industrial Relations: Frequently, issues arise in the industrial relations field,
which have their origin in the work to be undertaken. In these instances the job
description may be used to form a factual basis for discussion and problem
resolution.
6. Organization and Procedure Analysis-The duties and responsibilities outlined in
the job description may be used to a great advantage by management in
analysing organisation and procedures, because they reveal how the work is
organised, how the procedure operate and how authority and responsibility are
appointed.
A Job Description should include a:
1. Job Title: It represents a summary statement of what the job entails.
2. Job Objective or Overall Purpose Statement: This statement is generally a
summary designed to orient the reader to the general nature, level, purpose and
objective of the job. The summary should describe the broad function and scope
of the position and be no longer than three to four sentences.
3. List of Duties or Tasks Performed: The list contains an item-by-item list of
principal duties, continuing responsibilities and accountability of the occupant
of the position. The list should contain each and every essential job duty or
responsibility that is critical to the successful performance of the job. The list
should begin with the most important functional and relational responsibilities
and continue down in order of significance. Each duty or responsibility that
comprises at least five percent of the incumbent’s time should be included in the
list.
4. Description of the Relationships and Roles: the occupant of the position holds
15
within the company, including any supervisory positions, subordinating roles Job Analysis
and/or other working relationships.
6.10 JOB SPECIFICATION
Workload analysis helps in identifying the minimum qualification needed to perform
a particular job. These may include academic qualifications, professional
qualifications, age, years of experience, relevance and nature of previous experience,
and other skills and attitudes. They form the minimum eligibility requirements, which
the candidate must have, for the appointment to a job. A clear indication of
specifications helps in generating eligible applications, because of self-selection. The
candidates who do not possess those qualifications do not apply. On the other hand,
lack of clear- cut specifications may generate a large number of applications, leading
to high costs, in terms of man-hours, in processing them.
There is a great deal of disagreement with regard to developing complete and correct
job specification unlike the job description, which provides more objective
assessment of job requirements. The decision to specify minimum human
requirements for a job is a difficult one as it involves considerable degree of
subjectivity. There is a general feeling that organisations generally tend to establish
relatively high requirements for formal education and training, resulting in a situation
where highly qualified people end up doing jobs of routine nature. Particularly, in
India, highly qualified personnel are recruited for jobs where their abilities, skills and
knowledge are under- utilized.
Despite these problems, however, minimally acceptable human requirements need to
be specified for various jobs and category of jobs. The format for job specification
should include the following items:
l Position Title
l Education/ Training
l Experience
l Knowledge
l Abilities
l Skills
l Aptitude
l Desirable Attributes
l Contra-indicators, if any.
From job analysis to jobless world
Job enrichment means redfining in a way that increases the opportunities for workers
to experience building of responsibility, achievement, growth and recognition by
doing job well.
l Analysing together the job
l Establishing client recognition
l Vertical loading
l Job-Sharing
l Flexible job doing pattern etc.
l Open feedback channels.
Whether specialised, enlarged or enriched, workers skill generally like to have
16
Approaches to
Analysing Job
specific job to do and the job require job descriptions. But in the emerging
organisation today jobs are becoming more amorphous and more difficult to define.
In other words the trend is towards “do-jobbing in many modern organisation.
6.11 SUMMARY
Job Analysis is the process of job-related data. The data collected will be useful for
preparing job description and job specification. Job description lists job title, duties,
machines and equipment involved, working conditions surrounding a job and the
like. Job specification lists the human qualifications and qualities necessary to do the
job.
Job analysis is useful for HRP, recruitment and selection, training and development,
job evaluation, remuneration, performance appraisal, personnel information and
safety and health programmes. It also aides analysis of the organisation structures and
the work systems/procedures and contribute towards improving the productivity of
the organisation.
A logical sequence to job analysis is job design which is nothing but organisation of
tasks, duties and responsibilities into a unit of work.
6.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by job analysis? Explain the process of job analysis.
2. Explain various methods of collecting information for job analysis.
3. Define job description. Explain the uses of job description.
6.13 FURTHER READINGS
Aswathappa, A. (2002) Human Resource and Personnel Management: New Delhi:
Tata McGraw.
Beddoe Robin Forbes (1988). How to prepare a job evaluation: Job Description,
Working Time Analysts.
Burns, M (1978). Understanding Job Evaluation, Institute of Personnel Management,
London, IPM.
ILO (1986), Job Evaluation, ILO, Geneva.
Morris, J. Walker (1973). Principles and Practice of Job Evaluation, London,
Heinemann Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford.
Peterson T.T(1972). Job Evaluation: A manual for Peterson Method. Vol 2, London,
Business Books.
Saiyadain, M.S(2003) Human Resource Management (3rd ed), New Delhi: Tata
McGraw
US Civil Service Commission (1976): Job An
4123-15-03 Standards of conduct.
(A) Purpose.
It is the policy of the industrial commission and the bureau of workers' compensation to
carry out its mission in accordance with the strictest ethical guidelines and to ensure that
commission and bureau employees conduct themselves in a manner that fosters public
confidence in the integrity of the commission and the bureau, its processes, and its
accomplishments.
The commission and the bureau hereby adopt the provisions of the Ohio ethics law,
including but not limited to the provisions of Chapters 102. and 2921. of the Ohio
Revised Code, and as interpreted by the Ohio ethics commission and Ohio courts.
(B) Prohibited Conduct.
(1) No industrial commission member, the administrator of workers'
compensation, bureau of workers' compensation board of directors member,
commission employee, bureau employee, ombudsperson, or employee of the
office of ombudsperson shall do any of the following acts:
(a) Solicit or accept anything of value from anyone doing business with
the commission or the bureau;
(b) Solicit or accept employment from anyone doing business with the
commission or the bureau, unless the member or employee completely
withdraws from any commission or bureau discretionary or decisionmaking
activity regarding the party offering employment, and the
commission or the bureau approves the withdrawal;
(c) Use his or her public position to obtain benefits for the member or
employee, a family member, or anyone with whom the member or
employee has a business or employment relationship;
(d) Be paid or accept any form of compensation for personal services
rendered on a matter before, or sell goods or services to the commission or
the bureau;
(e) Be paid or accept any form of compensation for personal services
rendered on a matter before, or sell (except by competitive bid) goods or
services to, any state agency other than the commission or the bureau, as
applicable, unless the member or employee first discloses the services or
sales and withdraws from matters before the commission or the bureau
that directly affect officials and employees of the other state agency, as
directed in section 102.04 of the Revised Code;
(f) Hold or benefit from a contract with, authorized by, or approved by the
commission or the bureau, (the ethics law does accept some limited
stockholdings, and some contracts objectively shown as the lowest cost
services, where all criteria under section 2921.42 of the Revised Code are
met);
(g) Vote, authorize, recommend, or in any other way use his or her
position to secure approval of a commission or bureau contract (including
employment or personal services) in which the member or employee, a
family member, or anyone with whom the member or employee has a
business or employment relationship, has an interest;
(h) Solicit or accept honoraria (see division (H) of section 102.01 and
division (H) of section 202.03 of the Revised Code) except that employees
who are not financial disclosure filers may receive an honorarium only if
the honorarium is paid in recognition of a demonstrable business,
profession, or esthetic interest of the employee that exists apart from
public office or employment, and is not paid by any person or other entity,
or by a representative or association of those persons or entities, doing
business with the commission or the bureau, as applicable;
(i) During public service, and for one year after leaving public service,
represent any person, in any fashion, before any public agency, with
respect to a matter in which the member or employee personally
participated while serving with the commission or the bureau, as
applicable;
(j) Use or disclose confidential information protected by law, unless
appropriately authorized;
(k) Use, or authorize the use of, his or her title, the name of the
commission or the bureau, or the agencies logos in a manner that suggests
impropriety, favoritism, or bias by the commission or the bureau, or by a
member or employee;
(l) Solicit or accept any compensation, except as allowed by law, to
perform his or her official duties or any act or service in his or her official
capacity; and
(m) Sponsor parties or other entertainment for the personnel of their
agencies, the costs of which are covered in whole or in part by donations
or receipts from the sale of tickets to individuals or entities, who are doing
or seeking to do business with the commission or bureau.
(2) For purposes of this rule, these phrases have the following meanings:
(a) "Anything of value" includes anything of monetary value, including,
but not limited to, money, loans, gifts, food or beverages, social event
tickets and expenses, travel expenses, golf outings, consulting fees,
compensation, or employment. "Value" means worth greater than de
minimis or nominal.
(b) "Anyone doing business with the commission or the bureau" includes,
but is not limited to, any person, corporation, or other party that is doing
or seeking to do business with, regulated by, or has interests before the
commission or the bureau, including anyone who is known or should be
known to be an agent or acting on behalf of such party, including any
person or entity marketing or otherwise attempting to secure business with
the commission or the bureau.
(C) Conflict of interest.
No employee of these agencies shall engage in outside employment that results in a
conflict or apparent conflict with the employee's official duties and responsibilities.
(1) Outside employment or activity in which an employee with or without pay
represents a claimant or employer in any matter before the industrial commission,
or the bureau of workers' compensation is prohibited.
(2) Outside employment with an attorney, representative or entity that involves
work concerning industrial claims, whether filed or to be filed, or which is in any
way related to workers' compensation matters is prohibited.
(D) Professional code of ethics.
In the event there is any conflict between a professional code of ethics governing any
employee of these agencies and this code of ethics for employees, the professional code
of ethics shall take precedence over the code of ethics for employees but the conflict shall
be promptly reported to the employing agency. In such case the agency shall promptly
determine the degree of conflict and take such further action as may be indicated.
(E) An employee shall not use state property of any kind for other than approved
activities. The employee shall not misuse or deface state property. The taking or use of
state property for the private purposes of an employee is prohibited. The employee shall
protect and conserve all state property, including equipment and supplies entrusted to or
issued to the employee.
(F) Diligence and impartiality in work.
Employees are encouraged to avoid absenteeism and tardiness, to not use sick leave
unless necessary and to abide by rules of the Ohio civil service. Recognizing that the
industrial commission and bureau of workers' compensation serve many people whose
interests are divergent, employees should work in a speedy and efficient manner, strive to
be courteous, fair and impartial to the people they serve, and responsive to the problems
that come before them. All segments of the public are to be treated equally, without
regard to age, race, sex, religion, country of origin, or handicap.
(G) It is understood that standards of ethical conduct may involve a myriad of situations.
The good conscience of individual employees shall remain the best guarantee of the
moral quality of their activities. The overall intent of this code of ethics is that employees
avoid any action, whether or not prohibited by the preceding provisions, which result in,
or create the appearance of:
(1) Using public office for private gain, or
(2) Giving preferential treatment to any person, entity, or group.
(H) Confidential information.
The confidentiality of all information which comes into possession of commission and
bureau employees shall be respected. In order to properly discharge this duty, all
employees must acquaint themselves with those areas of information that are designated
as confidential by statutes, by the courts and by the attorney general. Furthermore, they
must become familiar with the circumstances under which and the persons to whom such
information can be released.
(I) Every member or employee required to file a financial disclosure statement must file a
complete and accurate statement with the Ohio Ethics Commission by April fifteen of
each year. Any member or employee appointed, or employed in a filing position after
February fifteen of each year, and required to file a financial disclosure statement must
file a statement within ninety days of appointment or employment.
Effective: 2/15/08
Prior Effective Dates: 1/1/78, 8/15/07
Marketing Management 1)
Facility information, progress reports & USDA-APHIS reports
For links to copies of this facility's U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA)-Animal Plant Health Inspection (APHIS) reports, other information
and links, see also Facility Reports and Information: Proctor &
Gamble, Cincinnati, Ohio. [3]
For links to copies of this
facility's USDA-Animal Plant Health Inspection (APHIS) reports, other
information and links, see also Facility Reports and Information: The
IAMS Company, Dayton, OH.[4]
USDA AWA reports
As of
May 26, 2009, the USDA began posting all inspection reports for animal
breeders, dealers, exhibitors, handlers, research facilities and animal
carriers by state. See also USDA Animal Welfare Inspection Reports.
This information does not include animal testing contracted out to
contract research organizations (CRO)s nor testing done outside of the
U.S. Firms hire CROs to conduct animal toxicity tests for agrochemicals,
petrochemicals, household products, pharmaceutical drugs and toxins.
See also pharmaceutical industry, section 9 on contract research
organizations.
Huntingdon Life Sciences
P&G is a former client of Huntingdon Life Sciences (HLS).[5]
Animal cruelty & welfare violations
Iams investigation (United States)
PETA investigation of Sinclair Research Center. - 2002 - 2003
For nearly 10 months in 2002 and 2003, People for the Ethical Treatment
of Animals (PETA) conducted an undercover investigation at Sinclair
Research Center, a contract laboratory for Iams pet food. The
investigation found dogs had gone crazy from intense confinement in
barren steel cages and cement cells. Dogs were left piled on a filthy
paint-chipped floor after chunks of muscle had been hacked from their
thighs. They had also been surgically debarked. Severely ill dogs and
cats were languished in cages without veterinary care. Iams
representatives toured the facility and witnessed dogs circling their
cells and sweltering in the summer heat, yet did nothing about it. The
USDA investigated PETA's complaint and cited the laboratory for failure
to provide veterinary care and pain relief; adequate space; and employee
training; along with almost 40 other violations of the Animal Welfare
Act. [6], [7] Sinclair paid a penalty of $33,000.
After intense
pressure from PETA and its supporters, Iams agreed to sever its ties
with Sinclair Research Center and end invasive and terminal experiments
on dogs and cats. Iams also agreed to begin conducting in-home tests for
food and nutrition experiments. However, they still keep up to 700 dogs
in their Dayton, Ohio laboratory for non-invasive nutritional studies,
which they have refused to give a PETA representative access to. Iams
has also refused to end invasive experiments on non dog and cat studies.
Iams funded an almost $200,000 two-year study at Purdue University that
consisted of taping the tails of mice to the tops of cages to keep
their hind legs suspended and cause muscular atrophy. They also fought
the release of information from another university study in which a
painful disease was induced in dogs. Animal groups have pressured Iams
to conduct 100% non-invasive, cage free in-home tests only. [8]
Iams investigation (United Kingdom)
Shocking cruelty was also exposed in the United Kingdom in 2001.
IAMS/Eukanuba's experiments on hundreds of animals caused kidney
failure, obesity, malnutrition, liver damage, severe allergic reactions,
stomach inflammation, diarrhoea, severe skin disorders, lesions, skin
wounds and other painful illnesses.[9] In May of 2001, the Sunday
Express revealed "damning evidence of gruesome tests performed on dogs
and cats".[10]
The UK laboratory watchdog group, Uncaged
Campaigns, uncovered documents describing Iams' "horrific research" on
460 cats and dogs. The front page story was based on the groups'
investigation. Many of the animals endured painful, invasive and lethal
tests. After the story broke, the Royal Society for the Protection of
Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) vowed to sever its ties with the company. In a
January of 2002 letter responding to Uncaged Campaigns' concerns, the
RSPCA acknowledge that "allegations" which appeared in the Express "were
indeed well-founded", in spite of the company's denials. The RSPCA
described P&G's policy statement that "we do not use cats and dogs
in research or testing for non-drug products" as "deficient". Several
other welfare groups and rescue societies vowed "not to give IAMS a
platform in future." Many other animal welfare, animal rights and
companion animal groups pledged their support.[11] See also links to
Iams pages.[12]
P&G product testing
P&G uses
many other species of animals, including guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters,
ferrets, rats and mice for "product safety research", in addition to
using cats and dogs in pet food experiments. Investigations by Uncaged
Campaigns revealed disturbing examples of P&G’s ongoing painful and
lethal animal testing:
"P&G test on animals because of
their desire to get new chemical ingredients on to the market. This
allows them to claim that their new hair dye, skin cream or washing
powder etc. is ‘new, improved’, in the hope of increasing sales. But
with many companies producing similar consumer products without carrying
out animal tests, it shows that P&G’s cruelty is motivated by
greed." ..instead of reforming, P&G invest enormous amounts in PR
and spin that aims to give a rosy impression of their testing practices.
P&G have even been lobbying governments to try to block bans on
animal testing for cosmetics that have public support."[13]
Their investigations uncovered the company's plans for massive animal
testing programs for new cosmetics and household product ingredients.
See also descriptions of experiments.[14] According to In Defense of
Animals (IDA), P&G claims to no longer use dogs in product testing
and to have reduced animal testing by 90%. However, they refuse to
release numbers, species and specific information about tests, even to
their own shareholders. P&G still kills thousands of animals a year
in cruel, painful tests for trivial, unnecessary ingredients. See also
Recent Procter & Gamble animal testing [15] & animal testing,
section 3 on product (toxicity) testing.
Over 90% of the
animals used in experimentation are excluded from the Animal Welfare Act
(AWA), the only federal law which over sees animal testing. Rats, mice,
birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish are expressly eliminated from all
safeguards. Species not covered under the AWA do not even have to be
reported. [16] See also USDA.
Global Boycott Proctor & Gamble Day
Global Boycott Proctor & Gamble Day is sponsored by Uncaged
Campaigns. It is usually held on the third Saturday of May as part of a
worldwide campaign to publicize P&G's animal testing policies and
educate consumers about cruelty-free shopping.
Corporate Social Responsibility
At IndianOil, corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been the
cornerstone of success right from inception in the year 1964. The
Corporation’s objectives in this key performance area are enshrined in
its Mission statement: "…to help enrich the quality of life of the
community and preserve ecological balance and heritage through a strong
environment conscience."
We at IndianOil have
defined a set of core values for ourselves – Care, Innovation, Passion
and Trust – to guide us in all we do. We take pride in being able to
claim almost all our countrymen as our customers. That’s why, we coined
the phrase, “IndianOil – India Inspired", in our corporate campaigns.
Public corporations like IndianOil are essentially organs of society
deploying significant public resources. We, therefore, are aware of the
need to work beyond financial considerations and put in that little
extra to ensure that we are perceived not just as corporate behemoths
that exist for profits, but as wholesome entities created for the good
of the society and for improving the quality of life of the communities
we serve.
As a constructive partner in the
communities in which it operates, IndianOil has been taking concrete
action to realise its social responsibility objectives, thereby building
value for its shareholders and customers. The Corporation respects
human rights, values its employees, and invests in innovative
technologies and solutions for sustainable energy flow and economic
growth. In the past five decades, IndianOil has supported innumerable
social and community initiatives in India. Touching the lives of
millions of people positively by supporting environmental and
health-care projects and social, cultural and educational programmes.
Besides focusing primarily on the welfare of economically and socially
deprived sections of society, IndianOil also aims at developing
techno-economically viable and environment-friendly products &
services for the benefit of millions of its consumers, while at the same
time ensuring the highest standards of safety and environment.
Social responsibility
We live in a world where more than 50 of the biggest economies are
corporations, where General Motors' turnover is bigger than Denmark's
GDP, and where footloose capital and the rising power of corporations
are seen to be eclipsing the sovereignty of nation states. So it's no
surprise that people now demand big business be more accountable.
As ethicist Attracta Lagan writes in her book 3-D Ethics (eContent
Management, 2005): "Business will determine the quality of the air we
breathe, the fuel we burn, the food we eat and the water we drink. So
too, it is business that will shape the emergence of a global society by
determining who is included, who is informed, who gets what and which
human rights are enshrined in the global workplace. Business now has to
have the potential to enhance or destabilise social progress in equal
measure."
The growing power of capital is another force pushing
the change. During the past decade, we have witnessed the rise of the
so-called universal owners - global financial institutions that have
holdings across the entire economy.
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Their holdings encompass most sectors, markets and asset classes,
making their interests largely the same as the public's. Significantly,
these institutions have been pushing companies to disclose more about
their greenhouse gas emissions.
The force of these institutions, and the investment money they represent, simply cannot be overestimated.
All over the world, money is sloshing about as more people put it away
for their retirement. In Australia alone, the superannuation pool has
reached $1 trillion, making this country one of the top five pension
savings pools in the world.
An increasing number of
institutions controlling these investments are starting to judge
companies on their performance on environmental, social and governance
issues. Put simply, companies will discover that they ignore issues such
as environmental damage and social dislocation at their peril.
Another reason why more companies are taking corporate social responsibility seriously is the threat of reputational damage.
Consider, for example, the way oil company Exxon's reputation was trashed after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill.
Locally, James Hardie still has to fix the damage to its reputation
over its battle with asbestos victims, even though the company is still
going well as a business concern.
The other force driving the
change is the pressure for increasing accountability in a world where
information is just a click away.
The compartmentalisation of
business - where companies are responsible only for what they produce -
is no longer acceptable. Young people are now growing up in a networked
world. The world of electronic messaging, email, and internet and
intranet relationships makes it harder for companies to get away with
having a large gap between what they claim they are about and their
actions.
While more companies are taking corporate social responsibility seriously, they seem no closer to understanding what it means.
For some, it's about compliance and philanthropy; for others it's
sustainability, and some talk about the company's impact on society and
its relationships with the community. Others just focus on the
environment.
What's badly needed is a broader framework, one that has 10 basic rules.
The first five set out what corporate social responsibility is, and the
next five define how the organisation should deal with it so it is more
than lip-service and public relations window-dressing:
1.
Corporate governance and accountability: the company is accountable to
shareholders, government, employees, customers and community. The hard
part: setting targets that would make it accountable to all these
stakeholders.
2. Sustainability and environment: this takes in a
huge area including greenhouse gas emissions, water, paper,
degradation, impact of supply chains, green investment, salinity,
agricultural practices and cultural heritage.
3. Workforce:
this covers areas such as fair pay and conditions, women and minorities
in management roles, maternity leave and re-entry, people with
disabilities, mature-aged workers, disadvantaged youth, long-term
unemployed and indigenous communities. It also includes occupational
health and safety, training and work-life balance.
4. Human
rights: takes in supply-chain issues, fair trading, alliances and
partnerships with certain governments and the impact of products.
5. Community involvement: this covers all sorts of areas including
meaningful volunteering programs, staff lending their skills to the
boards of non-profit organisations and philanthropy.
For the
organisation, there are five key issues that need to be addressed. If
they fail to do all of these, corporate social responsibility becomes a
meaningless exercise.
1. Companies need to demonstrate corporate social responsibility as a value proposition to the board.
2. They need to find ways of getting support from shareholders and consumers.
3. It is critical for the organisation to develop audit tools so that
they can place a dollar value and conduct a cost-benefit analysis of all
their corporate social responsibility expenditure.
4. They need to approach it in a business-like way. Good corporate social responsibility should be good business.
5. The programs need to be run at a senior level. There is no point
fobbing it off on to the corporate affairs or marketing departments
because that creates silos and prevents any impact on the corporate
culture.
Still, there are limits to what corporate social
responsibility can do. The biggest mistake businesses can make is to
assume they are responsible for fixing the world's environmental and
social problems.
Much of it comes down to government policies.
However, businesses are in a position to provide leadership and guidance.
The benefits will flow when businesses, government and communities work together
MANG ECONOMICS
A business cycle is a sequence of economic activity in a nation's
economy that is typically characterized by four phases—recession,
recovery, growth, and decline—that repeat themselves over time.
Economists note, however, that complete business cycles vary in length.
The duration of business cycles can be anywhere from about two to twelve
years, with most cycles averaging about six years in length. In
addition, some business analysts have appropriated the business cycle
model and terminology to study and explain fluctuations in business
inventory and other individual elements of corporate operations. But the
term "business cycle" is still primarily associated with larger
(regional, national, or industrywide) business trends.
STAGES OF A BUSINESS CYCLE
RECESSION A recession—also sometimes referred to as a trough—is a
period of reduced economic activity in which levels of buying, selling,
production, and employment typically diminish. This is the most
unwelcome stage of the business cycle for business owners and consumers
alike. A particularly severe recession is known as a depression.
RECOVERY Also known as an upturn, the recovery stage of the business
cycle is the point at which the economy "troughs" out and starts working
its way up to better financial footing.
GROWTH Economic growth
is in essence a period of sustained expansion. Hallmarks of this part
of the business cycle include increased consumer confidence, which
translates into higher levels of business activity. Because the economy
tends to operate at or near full capacity during periods of prosperity,
growth periods are also generally accompanied by inflationary pressures.
DECLINE Also referred to as a contraction or downturn, a decline
basically marks the end of the period of growth in the business cycle.
Declines are characterized by decreased levels of consumer purchases
(especially of durable goods) and, subsequently, reduced production by
businesses.
FACTORS THAT SHAPE BUSINESS CYCLES
For
centuries, economists in both the United States and Europe regarded
economic downturns as "diseases" that had to be treated; it followed,
then, that economies characterized by growth and affluence were regarded
as "healthy" economies. By the end of the 19th century, however, many
economists had begun to recognize that economies were cyclical by their
very nature, and studies increasingly turned to determining which
factors were primarily responsible for shaping the direction and
disposition of national, regional, and industry-specific economies.
Today, economists, corporate executives, and business owners cite
several factors as particularly important in shaping the complexion of
business environments.
VOLATILITY OF INVESTMENT SPENDING
Variations in investment spending is one of the important factors in
business cycles. Investment spending is considered the most volatile
component of the aggregate or total demand (it varies much more from
year to year than the largest component of the aggregate demand, the
consumption spending), and empirical studies by economists have revealed
that the volatility of the investment component is an important factor
in explaining business cycles in the United States. According to these
studies, increases in investment spur a subsequent increase in aggregate
demand, leading to economic expansion. Decreases in investment have the
opposite effect. Indeed, economists can point to several points in
American history in which the importance of investment spending was made
quite evident. The Great Depression, for instance, was caused by a
collapse in investment spending in the aftermath of the stock market
crash of 1929. Similarly, prosperity of the late 1950s was attributed to
a capital goods boom.
There are several reasons for the
volatility that can often be seen in investment spending. One generic
reason is the pace at which investment accelerates in response to upward
trends in sales. This linkage, which is called the acceleration
principle by economists, can be briefly explained as follows. Suppose a
firm is operating at full capacity. When sales of its goods increase,
output will have to be increased by increasing plant capacity through
further investment. As a result, changes in sales result in magnified
percentage changes in investment expenditures. This accelerates the pace
of economic expansion, which generates greater income in the economy,
leading to further increases in sales. Thus, once the expansion starts,
the pace of investment spending accelerates. In more concrete terms, the
response of the investment spending is related to the rate at which
sales are increasing. In general, if an increase in sales is expanding,
investment spending rises, and if an increase in sales has peaked and is
beginning to slow, investment spending falls. Thus, the pace of
investment spending is influenced by changes in the rate of sales.
MOMENTUM Many economists cite a certain "follow-the-leader" mentality
in consumer spending. In situations where consumer confidence is high
and people adopt more free-spending habits, other customers are deemed
to be more likely to increase their spending as well. Conversely,
downturns in spending tend to be imitated as well.
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS Technological innovations can have an acute
impact on business cycles. Indeed, technological breakthroughs in
communication, transportation, manufacturing, and other operational
areas can have a ripple effect throughout an industry or an economy.
Technological innovations may relate to production and use of a new
product or production of an existing product using a new process. The
video imaging and personal computer industries, for instance, have
undergone immense technological innovations in recent years, and the
latter industry in particular has had a pronounced impact on the
business operations of countless organizations. However, technological
innovations—and consequent increases in investment—take place at
irregular intervals. Fluctuating investments, due to variations in the
pace of technological innovations, lead to business fluctuations in the
economy.
There are many reasons why the pace of technological
innovations varies. Major innovations do not occur every day. Nor do
they take place at a constant rate. Chance factors greatly influence the
timing of major innovations, as well as the number of innovations in a
particular year. Economists consider the variations in technological
innovations as random (with no systematic pattern). Thus, irregularity
in the pace of innovations in new products or processes becomes a source
of business fluctuations.
VARIATIONS IN INVENTORIES Variations
in inventories—expansion and contraction in the level of inventories of
goods kept by businesses—also contribute to business cycles.
Inventories are the stocks of goods firms keep on hand to meet demand
for their products. How do variations in the level of inventories
trigger changes in a business cycle? Usually, during a business
downturn, firms let their inventories decline. As inventories dwindle,
businesses ultimately find themselves short of inventories. As a result,
they start increasing inventory levels by producing output greater than
sales, leading to an economic expansion. This expansion continues as
long as the rate of increase in sales holds up and producers continue to
increase inventories at the preceding rate. However, as the rate of
increase in sales slows, firms begin to cut back on their inventory
accumulation. The subsequent reduction in inventory investment dampens
the economic expansion, and eventually causes an economic downturn. The
process then repeats itself all over again. It should be noted that
while variations in inventory levels impact overall rates of economic
growth, the resulting business cycles are not really long. The business
cycles generated by fluctuations in inventories are called minor or
short business cycles. These periods, which usually last about two to
four years, are sometimes also called inventory cycles.
FLUCTUATIONS IN GOVERNMENT SPENDING
Variations in government spending are yet another source of business
fluctuations. This may appear to be an unlikely source, as the
government is widely considered to be a stabilizing force in the economy
rather than a source of economic fluctuations or instability.
Nevertheless, government spending has been a major destabilizing force
on several occasions, especially during and after wars. Government
spending increased by an enormous amount during World War II, leading to
an economic expansion that continued for several years after the war.
Government spending also increased, though to a smaller extent compared
to World War II, during the Korean and Vietnam wars. These also led to
economic expansions. However, government spending not only contributes
to economic expansions, but economic contractions as well. In fact, the
recession of 1953-54 was caused by the reduction in government spending
after the Korean War ended. More recently, the end of the Cold War
resulted in a reduction in defense spending by the United States that
had a pronounced impact on certain defense-dependent industries and
geographic regions.
POLITICALLY GENERATED BUSINESS CYCLES
Many economists have hypothesized that business cycles are the result
of the politically motivated use of macroeconomic policies (monetary and
fiscal policies) that are designed to serve the interest of politicians
running for re-election. The theory of political business cycles is
predicated on the belief that elected officials (the president, members
of congress, governors, etc.) have a tendency to engineer expansionary
macroeconomic policies in order to aid their re-election efforts.
MONETARY POLICIES Variations in the nation's monetary policies,
independent of changes induced by political pressures, are an important
influence in business cycles as well. Use of fiscal policy—increased
government spending and/or tax cuts—is the most common way of boosting
aggregate demand, causing an economic expansion. Moreover, the decisions
of the Federal Reserve, which controls interest rates, can have a
dramatic impact on consumer and investor confidence as well.
FLUCTUATIONS IN EXPORTS AND IMPORTS The difference between exports and
imports is the net foreign demand for goods and services, also called
net exports. Because net exports are a component of the aggregate demand
in the economy, variations in exports and imports can lead to business
fluctuations as well. There are many reasons for variations in exports
and imports over time. Growth in the gross domestic product of an
economy is the most important determinant of its demand for imported
goods—as people's incomes grow, their appetite for additional goods and
services, including goods produced abroad, increases. The opposite holds
when foreign economies are growing—growth in incomes in foreign
countries also leads to an increased demand for imported goods by the
residents of these countries. This, in turn, causes U.S. exports to
grow. Currency exchange rates can also have a dramatic impact on
international trade—and hence, domestic business cycles—as well.
KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS CYCLE MANAGEMENT
Small business owners can take several steps to help ensure that their
establishments weather business cycles with a minimum of uncertainty and
damage. "The concept of cycle management may be relatively new," wrote
Matthew Gallagher in Chemical Marketing Reporter, "but it already has
many adherents who agree that strategies that work at the bottom of a
cycle need to be adopted as much as ones that work at the top of a
cycle. While there will be no definitive formula for every company, the
approaches generally stress a long-term view which focuses on a firm's
key strengths and encourages it to plan with greater discretion at all
times. Essentially, businesses are operating toward operating on a more
even keel."
Specific tips for managing business cycle downturns include the following:
Flexibility—According to Gallagher, "part of growth management is a
flexible business plan that allows for development times that span the
entire cycle and includes alternative recession-resistant funding
structures."
Long-Term Planning—Consultants encourage small businesses to adopt a moderate stance in their long-range forecasting.
Attention to Customers—This can be an especially important factor
for businesses seeking to emerge from an economic downturn. "Staying
close to the customers is a tough discipline to maintain in good times,
but it is especially crucial coming out of bad times," stated Arthur
Daltas in Industry Week. "Your customer is the best test of when your
own upturn will arrive. Customers, especially industrial and commercial
ones, can give you early indications of their interest in placing large
orders in coming months."
Objectivity—Small business owners need
to maintain a high level of objectivity when riding business cycles.
Operational decisions based on hopes and desires rather than a sober
examination of the facts can devastate a business, especially in
economic down periods.
Study—"Timing any action for an upturn is
tricky, and the consequences of being early or late are serious," said
Daltas. "For example, expanding a sales force when the markets don't
materialize not only places big demands on working capital, but also
makes it hard to sustain the motivation of the sales-people. If the
force is improved too late, the cost is decreased market share or
decreased quality of the customer base. How does the company strike the
right balance between being early or late? Listening to economists,
politicians, and media to get a sense of what is happening is useful,
but it is unwise to rely solely on their sources. The best route is to
avoid trying to predict the upturn. Instead, listen to your customers
and know your own response-time requirements.
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